The Prince and The Discourses: a Study in Sovereign Power Essay

When Machiavelli originally wrote The Prince at the end of 1513 and perhaps early 1514, it had been written quickly by an author who was, among other things, seeking to regain his status in the Florentine government. Since many of his colleagues in the republican government had been quickly rehabilitated and returned to service under the Medici’s, Machiavelli felt that he needed a fair advantage in order to regain his previous post. It was originally written for presentation to Giuliano de'Medici, who might have actually appreciated it. But the dedication was changed when Giulianos died and it was then rededicated to Lorenzo de'Medici who probably did not read it when it came into his hands in 1516. Then in 1515-16, when he wrote the Discourses (a much longer process) it was probably the result of many discussions he might previously have had with scholars knowledgeable in political theory. In any event, when looking at these two books it becomes evident that the Prince wa s meant for an audience who wouldn’t take it completely seriously but would look to it as a satirical reminder of what could be; and then with the Discourses, of how it should be done. Machiavelli's political treatise, The Prince, has previously been seen as a departure from traditional thinking of the time. Machiavelli wanted a new theory that was free of stagnate ideals and ethical codes. The way he described government was as if it were a practical, efficient machine that made its own rules to fit the situation at hand instead of abiding by laws, morals, or culturally created traditions. Every political thinker before Machiavelli treated the use of power as a means to an end; their only differences lying in what they considered that end to be and how far... ...when connected to the Discourses; it is a way for a sovereign to compare the ideal and the reality of his/her sovereignty. Since the Prince seems to be on the extreme yet ideal end of the governmental spectrum, a sovereign (with the right amount of intelligence) could rightfully look to The Prince as an end and The Discourses as a means to that end. In effect, both books have created a full coherent philosophy, just not from outside appearances. But with a little more introspection, a coherent line of thought begins to appear. Works Cited Wooton, David ed. â€Å"Modern Political Thought: Readings from Machiavelli to Nietzsche.† Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2008. Nederman, Cary, "Niccolà ² Machiavelli",The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), http://plato.standford.edu/archives/fall2009/entries/machiavelli.

Religion and Myth

Consider what purpose the Myth of Esfandyar may have served within its culture. Evaluate carefully the characters, story lines, and try to determine what message, moral, or behavioral conventions you can associate with the respective myths. Make sure to cite specific parts of the story in your discussions. It is always OK to compare a myth to another or note a theme that may seem universal or conventional in mythology, (e. g. the god who dies and is resurrected motif from our last discussion). Just be specific in referencing other stories.Some possible angles to consider in composing your post: This myth ends with the following lines: Who among us can escape our fate? Who among us can use our wisdom, or our courage, or our strength, or our skill to this end? No one. How do Goshtasp and Esfandyar remain true to their principles? What effect does predestination have on the characters in this myth? How would predestination affect the way an individual lives? Esfandyar was a great warrio r who set in his heart to become the great ruler and King of Persia.His father knew that he was a great warrior and set him in his first task to defeat King Arjasp of Turan. Esfandyar then defeated Arjasp and his Demon warriors and caused them to flee from Persia. When Esfandyar returned to his father victorious and demanded that he be the King of Persia his father responded by sending him on another quest and to spread the word of Urmazd. When his father heard from a jealous nobleman that his son was going to over throw him from the thrown, he became so furious that he wanted to get rid of him at all cost.Because King Goshtasp knew he would not be able to defeat Arjasp and his army, safe his children or defend Persia all on his own he needed his son Esfandyar to help him succeed, so he let him go after imprisoning him. King Goshtasp also knew that his son would not fight for him unless he gave him the false believe of giving him the crown and becoming King. With this hope Esfandyar once again battled and defeated Arjasp, saved his brother and sisters after going through the seven stages of hardship.After all this his father still sent him on another journey to distract him from wanting the thrown after he knew that his son’s death was going to be on the hands of Rostam the great warrior. Even though Esfandyar knew his father was out to get him killed so that he would not precede him for the thrown he still went through with it because he has said â€Å"The brave warriors take the shortest route! A man has only one life to live and one death to face! And what will come is written in the stars! So it is best to be virtuous and valiant! After battling Rostam, Esfandyar was killed, and even though he knew that his father sent him there to be killed he knew â€Å"Urmazd will curse him for it! But, surely this was written in the stars in the heavens, and what is written there is sure to come! You are only the arm of fate. † This myth tells a lot abou t the Persian culture and the way they viewed the world. They had great faith and they knew with that faith came great power and privilege. Also they valued strength and had respect for it. They viewed strong men as heroes and worriers that had the ability to get what they want.This story is a myth because it has the belief of immortality and they used magic and power as a way to get what you want. By his great strength Esfandyar was able to win the seven stages and kill all that were in his way. This is similar to other myth in a way that myth always try to portray their heroes with God like strength, also the wisdom that these kings have in seeing the future and what is to come outlines their fate and their destiny. King Goshtasp has wisdom when he told his son â€Å"†¦one great victory does not entitle a prince to rule a Kingdom!And your hunger for power does not become you! † He knew that if a person becomes blinded by his ambition then it will get the best of him. K ing Goshtasp knew his son Esfandyar really wanted the thrown and will do anything to get it, and he remembered when he did the same thing with his father. That is why he plotted for his son’s death, because they believed in fate and that only what was written would come true. Esfandyar did not care that his fate was near. This myth teaches us many values that we need faith to live for and live by and that only what is destined for us will be.

Chapter One of Great Expectations Essay - 832 Words

What is the Significance of Chapter One of Great Expectations in Relation to the Novel as a Whole? Great Expectations is a novel written by Charles Dickens and is considered to be one of his best stories. The plot follows a young boy named Phillip Pirrip or Pip and it focuses on his growth as he matures from a young boy into a fully grown man. He had always had great expectations of himself, wishing to become someone of high social class - as this was set and written in the Victorian era when social class was a huge factor of society - and when he ends up visiting an eccentric woman called Miss Haversham he meets a beautiful young girl called Estella who becomes more important later on. After he discovers that he has a†¦show more content†¦Also the fact that the novel follows his growth and the word Pip is also used to describe a small seed which grows into something bigger. The setting from the start of the book is very important starting with the bleak and stereotypical graveyard that gives the chapter tension and a gloomy mood. The graveyard is a typical example of how the setting contributes to the atmosphere of the story. Starting the book in a graveyard immediately informs the reader about a lot of information about Pips history and under different circumstances it would have taken a lot longer to explain; things like Pips parents and family, which were quickly and subtlety explained to the readers using the gravestones when Magwitch asked Wheres your mother? and Pips response being There sir as he points to his Mother, Father and five siblings gravestones. Throughout the book the setting reflects Pips mood e.g. Pips experiences of suffering and torture, both mental and physical, by his sister were reflected by the surroundings being rough. The language and dialogue is unusual for a novel, this may be because originally it would have been written for a newspaper or magazine and it may have been published monthly because of this you will notice that all of the characters have either comical or unusual names, Dickens used this technique to make sure that these characters are not forgotten also you can also see subtle reminders ofShow MoreRelatedChapter One of Great Expectations Essay767 Words   |  4 PagesCOURSEWORK ‘How effective is chapter one as an opening to â€Å"great expectations†?’ The first chapter is set in the grave yard, where pip is looking at the tombstones of his dead parents and brothers. ‘Arranged in a neat row beside their grave, and were sacred to the memory of five little brothers of mine- who gave up trying to get a living exceedingly early in that universal struggle’. He is stating that all of his brothers gave in to death, which gives the idea that life expectancy wasRead MoreEssay about Chapter One of Dickens Great Expectations1858 Words   |  8 PagesChapter One of Dickens Great Expectations The title of the novel that I studied is, Great Expectations, written in the 19th century by Charles Dickens. Pip, an orphan often goes to the cemetery to mourn for his dead parents and brothers. While mourning one day, a convict hiding in that same cemetery scares him. All that he thinks of is to listen and obey the man. As the story evolves, we are also introduced to the sentimental part of Pips life. He is in love withRead MoreChapter One and Thirty Nine of Great Expectations Essay1814 Words   |  8 PagesCompare chapter 1 of Great Expectations, in which Pip first meets the convict, with chapter 39, when the convict returns. Charles Dickens is considered to be one of the greatest English novelists of the Victorian period. This greatest of Victorian writers was born in Landport, Portsmouth, on February 7, 1812. His father John worked as a clerk in the Navy Payroll Office in Portsmouth. It was his personal experience of factory work and the living conditions of the poor that created in DickensRead More Compare Chapter One of Great Expectations, in which Pip first meets1737 Words   |  7 PagesCompare Chapter One of Great Expectations, in which Pip first meets the convict, with Chapter 39 when he returns. Pip Pirrip is our main character of the story ‘Great Expectations’ by Charles Dickens. From what we’ve read in chapter one, we have found out that he is an orphan living in Kent with his older sister and her husband, Joe Gargery. We are not sure about his age but we can guess that he is around eight years old. He meets an escaped convict by the name of Magwitch, who asks himRead MoreEssay about Settings in Great Expectations928 Words   |  4 PagesShow how Dickens uses settings in Great Expectations to enhance our understanding of character and the symbolic elements of the plot - Great expectations Show how Dickens uses settings in Great Expectations to enhance our understanding of character and the symbolic elements of the plot. As we notice in the novel Great Expectations, Charles Dickens uses many different narrative techniques other than the usual description. One of these techniques is that of describing character throughRead More How the Views of Magwitch Change through the Course of the Novel734 Words   |  3 PagesHow the Views of Magwitch Change through the Course of the Novel Great Expectations is about a boy called Pip, who has Great Expectations and doesnt want to be poor all his life. Along his way, a lot of strange things happen to him, such as meeting strange people and getting money off unknown people. Great Expectations was wrote in 1860 and was Dickens thirteenth novel. This essay will be about how our views on Magwitch change through the story, such as at the beginning us thinkingRead MoreThe General Theory Of Employment, Interest, And Money.1653 Words   |  7 Pageshis toddler years in Cambridge where he attended kindergarten. In 1889, he attended his first kindergarten lessons at Perse School for Girls where he was supposed to attend lessons for five days a week. At the initial stage of education, he showed great interest in Arithmetic, laying a firm foundation for his future career as an economist (Bateman, et al. 2010) As his health was not good at this time, he had to take his lessons from home lessons since he could not attend classes on a regular basisRead MoreEssay about Great Expectations, Life of Pi and the Great Gatsby1274 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish Literature Summer Task The Great Gatsby, Life of Pi and Great Expectations: The Opening Chapters The opening chapters of each of these three books are both similar and different in many ways, and succeed to keep the reader interested enough to carry on their journey with Pip, Nick or Pi. The way characterisation is put forward in these three novels is rather similar, in the fact that all three are written in the first person, giving the impression that the character in question is tellingRead MoreThe Relationship Between Pip and Abel Magwitch in Charles Dickens Great Expectations1125 Words   |  5 PagesMagwitch in Charles Dickens Great Expectations In this essay, I am to observe the changes in the relationship between Pip and the convict Abel Magwitch in chapters 1 and 39 by examining Read MoreCharles Dickens: Great Expectations Essay988 Words   |  4 PagesCharles Dickens: Great Expectations Describe how Dickens creates atmosphere and introduces characters in Chapter One of Great Expectations. In this essay I am going to describe how Dickens successfully uses tension and drama to create atmosphere and to introduce his characters status, emotions and identity in the opening chapter of Great Expectations. The central character, Pip, is followed from youth as he makes the journey from poverty to riches and back again as

Social Inequality By Barbara Ehrenreich Essay - 1825 Words

Social inequality is the unequal set of opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. Social inequality happens when resources in a society are distributed unevenly. In America, social inequality is growing nonstop, and resource disparity still exists today. Social inequality affects poverty, many Americans are working low paying jobs with no hope of ever reaching social mobility, and the economy gap between rich and the poor keeps widening. These social inequalities are influenced by geographical location. The minorities remain to be one of the most affected by this social stratification. Many see these inequalities as a problem to blame the people themselves or society. They claim that these inequalities are used for their own benefits, resulting in the advantage of the taxpayers, and in some cases the rich. Many have taken their voice to shine a light on these negative issues. Writers such as Barbara Ehrenreich, reveals in her arti cle â€Å"Serving in Florida’ the struggles jobholders face to live on poor wage jobs. Kathleen Arnold in her narrative â€Å"From America’s New Working class† informs how substantive programs aimed to help recipients, take advantage of these by monitoring them and disciplining them with the goal to maintain a supply of cheap labor. And finally, Timothy Noah â€Å"From the Great Divergence: America’s Growing Inequality Crisis and What We Can do About It† informs about the growing inequality in America betweenShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Barbara Ehrenreich s Nickel And Dimed1337 Words   |  6 Pagespeople still reside in the lower-class after years of working laborious jobs. Indeed, some people have miraculously found their way out of the gutters on the system, but most people happen to not be as lucky. Through experience, author Barbara Ehrenreich finds that the social divide in America makes the American Dream much more difficult than it is perc eived to be by the upper class. The truth she finds by living as a person in poverty incited her frustrations and disgust with the system. The attainabilityRead MoreThe Connection Between Social Stratification And Individual1390 Words   |  6 PagesThe Connection Between Social Stratification and Individual Opportunity Undoubtedly, those who find themselves under the label â€Å"working class† are often disrespected and suffer through emotional or physical discomfort, and sometimes both, in their jobs. The disparity of inequality between the American social classes are growing bigger and the chances of individual opportunity are growing lower for middle or lower class citizens. Political activist Barbara Ehrenreich details a life of a working classRead MoreMedicine And Social Control, Barbara And John Ehrenreich918 Words   |  4 Pagestheir concerns for obtaining more social services, especially within the health system. In the essay Medicine and Social Control, Barbara and John Ehrenreich draws attention to the sociology of health and medicine. Ehrenreich claims that more mental health services there are, the more social control are given to these agencies (1, Ehrenreich, CC 2015 p. 185). Thus, individuals are giving up their autonomy and decisions to a higher authority. In this case, E hrenreich focuses on the sociological approachRead MoreEssay Bait And Switch By Barbara Ehrenreich1661 Words   |  7 PagesBait and Switch by Barbara Ehrenreich takes a comical look at the troubles that plague white collar unemployed. This book offers an in-depth view of the Barbara Ehrenreichs struggle to get a good job, which she defined as a job that would provide health care and an income of $50,000 a year.(6) This book was written in 2005 and is still up to date with the current unemployment problems. She uses her own experiences and observations for the reader to get an accurate picture of how hard it is forRead MoreNickel And Dimed, By Barbara Ehrenreich1636 Words   |  7 Pagespieces of American Literature highlight this concept in a way that is most pertinent to their corresponding time period. Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America, by Barbara Ehrenreich, specifically highlights a more modern time period, from the late 1990s to the early 2000s. Within this n arrative, author Barbara Ehrenreich depicts her struggles of finding equality within the multitude of jobs she works in order to make a living throughout multiple parts. She strongly asserts, within the breadthRead MoreThe Minimum Wage War, By Barbara Ehrenreich And The Article938 Words   |  4 Pagesworkers lack the experience in their chosen fields? Do these employees lack in their work ethic? Does the government need to give more support? Questions like these arise in both the story Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By In America by Barbara Ehrenreich and the article â€Å"The Minimum-Wage War† by Rolling Stone. At first glance, these writings may seem unrelated; However, the themes of minimum wage and work ethic go hand-in-hand with respect to these texts. These writings express the correlationRead MoreWhy Do Such Divisions Exist Within The Labour Market? Essay1129 Words   |  5 Pagespresence of inequality within the market(s), driven by historical conditions and on going market standards which have put and kept women, visible minorities and other groups in a vulnerable position. It is these certain groups that consistently suffer the consequences of labour market insecurity and inequality, and experience structural and social barriers to improving the conditions. Why do such divisions exist within the labour market? Does anyone benefit from the insecurity and inequality, or moreRead MoreGender Inequality: Can We Change Something so Engrained1447 Words   |  6 Pagesthe topic of social problems, most of us will readily agree that the United States has its fair share of issues. Where this agreement usually ends, however, surrounds the question of where these problems originate. Whereas some are convinced that it is an individual’s problem, others maintain that it is the system-based issue (Eitzen et al., 12). Through the use of Social Problems by D. Stanley Eitzen et al. throughout this course, the authors discuss the causes and solutions of social problems suchRead MoreIn January 2013 a prominent national US newspaper quoted former Secretary of State, Condolezza800 Words   |  4 Pageshow significant inequality is in America. The social class that you are born into will influence your outlook on social class and will also be the soc ial class you stay in (Loewen, 1995. 322). Your social class will determine the opportunities available for you including health, fitness, nutrition, education, SAT scores, medical resources and more (Loewen, 1995. 321-322). Loewen also proposes that the education system in America does not incorporate a proper analysis of our social class (Loewen,Read MoreBarbara Ehrenreich, The Author Of The Novel Nickeled And1310 Words   |  6 PagesBarbara Ehrenreich, the author of the novel Nickeled and Dimed on (Not) Getting by in America, family had achieved middle class, as she was fulfilling her Bachelor’s degree in physics. As time proceeds, she attended Graduate school to pursue her master’s degree in cell biology. Ehrenreich became involved with a woman s health movement, and also became a teacher at Old Westbury, in New York. With her activism in the women’s movement, she began to write about feminism and the myth regarding it being

Similarities Between Ancient Egypt And Mesopotamia

Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia are a valuable area of historical research. This essay will focus on the differences and similarities in these societies economic, political, and cultural lives. As well as the circumstances the people of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia faced. Agriculture Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian agricultural lives were very different due to their geographical situations, differences in technology, and developments. Only a small area of Egyptian land (the Delta and Nile Valley) was fertile during the annual inundation of the river Nile. Harsh natural circumstances created a famine risk for the entire population. When there were insufficient water resources for the agriculture, or floods threatening crops, it†¦show more content†¦After the Nile’s water reached them through the system of canals and stayed for some time, peasants got rich soil (David, 2003). In addition, as a highly bureaucratized state, Egypt invented the writing material papyrus, presumably, exactly for the needs of state apparatus, which had to take into consideration vast amounts of information with the assistance of hieroglyphs, one of the first phonetic writing systems. In Mesopotamia archeologists first found a wheel. Though it had various functions from traveling to pottery, it fits the concept of developed market relationships as long distances between the city-states required better transportation. As the Mesopotamians had property rights, they created, for instance, the first recorded laws called Hammurabi’s Code to ensure their rights (Oppenheim, 1977). Additionally, the Mesopotamians developed mathematics (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and geometry to supply their market relationships and make them recordable. Political Structure Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian agricultural life clearly shaped political structures in both countries. In Egypt, the Pharaoh had an absolute power mainly because of not his divinity, but due to the need to control the lands alongside the river Nile. The river being the most important economic object, could not be divided or shared due to the possibility of endangering the welfare of every citizen in theShow MoreRelatedSimilarities Between Ancient Egypt And Mesopotamia951 Words   |  4 Pageshistory are Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, because of the different geography, exposure to outside invasion, influence, and beliefs, Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia came to not only contrast in political and social structures but also share similarities in them as well. When it came to the development of Ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations politics played a prominent role in structuring the very foundation of each respective civilization. For instance, when it came to Ancient EgyptRead MoreSimilarities And Differences Between Ancient Egypt And Mesopotamia1125 Words   |  5 Pagesago there existed two main civilizations: Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers, and Ancient Egypt along the Nile. Even though Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt were both advanced civilizations they had many differences such as their government, religion, as well as their trade and society. Mesopotamian culture thought negatively about its gods, and had conflict, cultural diffusion, and a decentralized government while Ancient Egypt thought highly of its gods, had a centralizedRead MoreSimilarities Between Ancient Mesopotamia And Egypt1101 Words   |  5 PagesDifferences and Similarities While describing the cultural among the people of Mesopotamia and Egypt, I learned the differences and similarities in culture. The birth of Mesopotamian Civilization began in c. 3000 B.C.E., in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers of Southwest Asia. Mesopotamia is a Greek word and it means ‘between the rivers.’ In contrast, the birth of Egyptian Civilization began in c. 3100 B.C.E., in a valley of the Nile River in Northeastern Africa. Egypt is a Greek wordRead MoreEssay on Compare and Contrast Egypt and Mesopotamia901 Words   |  4 PagesEgypt developed around the Nile River, while Mesopotamia developed between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Egypt and Mesopotamia grew into complex civilizations. Politically, both Egypt and Mesopotamia had a government with one main ruler, but Egypt had a centralized government with a pharaoh, while Mesopotamia had a decentralized government with a king. Socially, both civilizations were patriarchal, but Egypt was more lenient towards women while Mesopotamia was stricter. The political and socialRead MoreEgypt And Mesopotamia Similarities984 Words   |  4 Pageswhat ways were the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt alike? In what ways were they different? What accounts for these similarities and differences? Mesopotamia and Egypt were the first known civilizations in history. While maintaining separate identities, they still managed to have a vast number of similarities. Differences that go beyond general location were also very prevalent between the two civilizations. One of the biggest similarities between the two civilizations is that they bothRead MoreMesopotamia and Egypt Essay before 600 BC911 Words   |  4 PagesMesopotamia and Egypt Ancient civilizations across history have shown unique and incredible feats of mankind. Arguably, two of the most prominent ancient civilizations in the Middle East and even the world are the Mesopotamians (Beginning 5,000 B.C.) and Egyptians (Beginning 3,150 B.C). Even though these two civilizations peaked about 2,000 years apart, they share numerous similarities contributing to their success, and also show even more differences that distinguish how each had a unique cultureRead MoreDifferences Between Mesopotamia And Egypt1337 Words   |  6 Pages Although Mesopotamia and Egypt are similar in many ways, they also have many differences. This essay will point out the differences and similarities of how these civilizations were governed, how the geography affected the people of these civilizations and the outlook these people had. Geography helped to define both Mesopotamia and Egypt, but Egypt, without a doubt had an easier lifestyle and definitely not as difficult as Mesopotamia. Egypt was mostly cut off from the entire world by the environmentRead MoreAccording to the modern researchers, the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations likely seem very1200 Words   |  5 Pageslocated differently. Egypt lies on the fertile Nile River valley , and desert around it.The Nile river have effect to Egyptians culture, it gave a rich natural fertilizing elements that helped Egyptian to grow plants. Also, Egyptian civilization formed by 3000 B.C. E., and they benefited from trade and technological. Back to Mesopotamia, it was located between Tigris and Euphrates river. Mesopotamia is made up of two regions, northern and southern. The Northern Mesopotamia was rich of fertile soilRead MoreThe Rise Of Civilizations On Egypt And Mesopotamia1530 Words   |  7 PagesThe rise of civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia occurred around the same time and the environment and natural forces affected the similarities and differences in social, political, and economic stability. There were many similarities and differences between both of these countries as well. In both cases, it was the river valley and geography that affected the agriculture, religious views, and government structures. The M esopotamian and Egyptian civilization developed in the Middle East and wereRead MoreMesopotamia, Egypt, and Indus Valley Essay813 Words   |  4 Pagesfascinating developments, the most prominent being the first civilizations, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. They had many similarities, such as characteristics of early civilizations and social structures, but they also had their differences. The most embossed differences included the divergent geography, prior belief, trade, relations with other civilizations, and politics. The earliest societies, such as Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt exhibiting indicator traits of civilization developed along the floodplains

Certainty Uncertainty Understanding Global â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Certainty Uncertainty Understanding Global? Answer: Introduction Climate change has become a major threat to global population because of its impacts on the environment, economy and society(Estrada, et al., 2017);(Luber Prudent, 2009);(Mishra, et al., 2010); (Rai Rai, 2013) (Wang, et al., 2014). As a result of this, stakeholders in every sector are making efforts to minimize the impacts of this phenomenon. Aviation is one of the forms of transport that are energy intensive and produce a lot of greenhouse gases(Taber, 2010). It is estimated that 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions resulting from human activities are contributed by aviation industry(ATAG, 2017) and this is projected to hit 5% by 2050(Banu, 2012). As global population and development continue to increase, demand for air transport is also rising rapidly, resulting to a possibility of higher greenhouse gas emissions. This has prompted aircraft manufacturers to develop various practices of reducing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions during production and operation of ai rcrafts. Some of these approaches include: use of renewable energy, use of recycled and recyclable materials, lean manufacturing, use of light and composite materials and nanomaterials, application of advanced technological and energy efficient processes; improve aircraft engine designs, increase fuel efficiency, etc.(Beck, et al., 2011);(Lee Mo, 2011). Governments have also developed policies aimed at monitoring and controlling emissions from the aviation industry(Capoccitti, et al., 2010);(Sikorska, 2015);(Zheng, et al., 2017). Irrespective of the approach chosen to minimize emissions in aviation industry, design processes of aircrafts are very critical and largely influences the success or failure of minimizing emissions during manufacturing and operating phases. During design process, the design team comprehensively analyzes various technical and performance parameters of the aircraft throughout its lifecycle thus making decisions that will help achieve predetermined emission targets. This is the approach that is being used by companies and organizations promoting the concept of green aircrafts, such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and Boeing(Gonzalez, 2017); (MacDonald, 2015). The aim of this report is to analyze the preliminary design, detailed design and development, and system test, evaluation validation and optimization of an aircraft manufacturing project. The report also discusses essential human factors to be considered when executing an aircraft manufacturing project. These are very essential process in aircraft manufacturing project especially if the project aims at improving resource efficiency and safety and comfort of aircraft users, and cutting down costs and greenhouse gas emissions. The key design processes of an aircraft are shown in below Preliminary design In preliminary design stage, the design team is tasked to create a fundamental proof of concept that was developed or chosen from the conceptual design phase(Domun, 2016). The design team uses advanced analytical method to calculate various requirements and parameters that the aircraft has to comply with so as to fly and perform its intended function effectively(Schwinn, et al., 2016). Some of the requirements and parameters that the design team determines include; flight mechanics, aerodynamics, stability, tunnel testing and structural stresses, among others. In general, preliminary design stage is where the design team proves the feasibility of the aircraft concept developed in the conceptual design stage. In other words, the team has to demonstrate how the preferred concept will meet the performance requirements of the aircraft, how it can be manufactured using available methods and resources, and also identify any constraints related to manufacturing process of the aircraft. An a ircraft comprises of different modules and subsystems, each with varied specifications. It is in this stage that the design team defines all the necessary specifications of the aircraft. This includes: system specifications that entails technical, performance, functional, support and maintenance features of the aircraft, development specifications that entails the need for new research design or development mechanisms, product specifications that entails stipulations of each module and subsystem, process specifications that entails the necessary services and processes for the manufacture and operation of the aircraft such as testing services, production services, maintenance services, etc., and material specifications that entails a list of resources or supplies needed to create the aircraft. The key components that the design team analyzes in preliminary design stage include: wings, fuselage, control surfaces (rudder, stabilizers, elevators, aileron, trim tab, etc.), power plant devices, propulsion devices (propeller), lift control devices (flap, spoiler and slat), landing gear (main gear and nose gear), cockpit (navigation, information and communication devices) and systems (hydraulic, pneumatic, electric etc.). The analyses in this stage are done based on these design criteria: usability, functional capability, producibility, reliability, security, safety, maintainability, serviceability, supportability, durability, affordability, interoperability, sustainability and disposability. For this to be achieved, professionals from different engineering fields must be involved and work together as a team. The key professionals to be involved include those from the following fields: design engineering, software engineering, manufacturing engineering, quality engineering, envir onmental engineering, value engineering, maintainability engineering, logistics engineering, reliability engineering, safety and security engineering, and ergonometric engineering. Last but not least is that every activity finalized in preliminary design stage is reviewed comprehensively for improvement in subsequent stages of the project. Detailed design and development This stage is largely about fabrication of the aircraft that is to be manufactured. Here, the design team uses existing strategies and policies to fabricate the real aircraft. The team determines the best design, size, number and location of various components of the aircraft. Various aspects of the aircraft such as structural, aerodynamic, performance and control that were identified in the preliminary design stage are also tested. Generally, detailed design stage is where the designs developed in the preliminary design stage are turned into a functioning aircraft, in terms of mockups and models (engineering and prototype), after creating several simulations(Monroe Aerospace, 2017). Detailed design stage is iterative and completed by following eight steps(Blanchard Fabrycky, 2010). First is to create proper design requirements of aircraft components centered on the specifications that were developed in preliminary design stage. Second is to carry out necessary technical works. Third is to find the best approach of integrating all components of the aircraft that will ensure maximum efficiency during manufacturing and operation phases. Fourth is to identify suitable engineering software and design tools for the project, such as CAD (computer aided design) software, CAE (computer aided engineering) software, lean manufacturing techniques, etc. Fifth is to use the chosen design and engineering tools and systems to prepare necessary documents and designs. The documents include list of aircraft components, cost estimations, programme or schedule of the project, analyses and reports. Sixth is the development process, which entails creating mockups, models and simulati ons of the aircraft to be manufactured. The simulations are used to establish the functional capability and producibility of the aircraft. Seventh is to analyze the design and develop reviews. Last but not least is to evaluate the design reviews and feedback, and use them to make appropriate improvements or changes to the aircraft design. System test, evaluation validation and optimization These are also very important processes when designing an aircraft. The necessary testing, evaluation and validation processes are identified during conceptual design stage so that the design team can have adequate time to prepare on how to perform them. Preparation also entails identifying the required equipment, tools, personnel, training and facilities for each test, evaluation and validation processes. Testing process basically involves subjecting individual components of the aircraft then subsystems and the whole aircraft so as to determine whether they meet or fail to meet the requirements of the project, including design specifications. Some of the tests performed include: structural tests, usability tests, functional tests, producibility tests, reliability tests, security and safety tests, software system tests, maintainability tests, control tests, serviceability tests, supportability tests, durability tests, affordability tests, interoperability tests, sustainability tests, disposability tests and environmental tests. The results obtained from each of these tests are evaluated and used to validate or invalidate the individual components, subsystems or the whole aircraft. Any components that fails to pass the tests has to be reviewed and redesigned until it passes the tests. It is also important to identify qualified and specialized individuals or companies to carry out individual tests. The results obtained should also be analyzed by different qualified professionals. Some of the validations that must be obtained for the design and safety of aircraft include: human safety factors, aircraft software, components manufacturer approval, technical standards orders, etc. Optimization is another crucial process where the design team identifies the best solution for every problem related to the aircraft manufacture project. It is believed that every solution has numerous alternatives and therefore the best should always be selected. In this process, the design team applies relevant mathematical equations and formulae, simulations and calculations to evaluate the effects of changing different parameters of the design and use the outputs to come up with the best matrices or combinations. Some of the strategies that the design team can apply to optimize the designs include: use of alternative for manufacturing and operation processes of the aircraft, use of locally available materials to minimize transportation emissions during manufacturing process, use of lean manufacturing principles to reduce wastage, automation, etc. At the end of optimization process, the aircraft should be allowed to go into full production and use. Human factors Human factors are another very important aspect of aircraft design because they cause a significant percentage of aircraft accidents(Lei, et al., 2014). These factors are the ones that should influence the layout and design of the cockpit. Therefore the design team should always have the pilot and other users of the aircraft in mind when designing the cockpit and the entire aircraft. This means that the design team should not only focus on the avionics systems but also on how the pilot will interact with these systems. The ultimate goal is to simplify pilots tasks and minimize their workload. The most important human factors that are considered in the design of aircrafts include: anthropometric factors (body dimensions, foot size, hand size, thigh length, muscle strength, standing height, sitting height, sitting eye height, length of legs and arms, body thickness and width, sitting elbow rest length/height, etc.), pilot comfort, workspace constraints (space and positioning of control s and other devices), human sensory factors (smell, vision and noise), and physiological factors (vibration, extreme temperature, toxic substances, humidity, radiation, etc.), safety harness, display (design, colour and light), control design and layout, standardization, control loading, direction, colours and shapes, warning system, checklists and automation(Paulson, 2012). Besides the pilots, the design team should also look at the perspectives of passengers, other crew members and maintenance technicians of the aircraft by considering factors such as safety, comfort, reliability, affordability and ease of work. With modern technology, it is possible to incorporate all appropriate human factors cost effectively. Conclusion Aircrafts are used for various purposes and their importance in modern society cannot be overemphasized. However, the environmental impacts of aircrafts, which also translates into economic and social impacts, have come under great scrutiny because of the climate change concerns. For this reason, designers have a major role to play so as to minimize environmental impacts of aircrafts. Design process is very important in an aircraft manufacture project because the way an aircraft is designed influences how it is manufactured and operated. The design team has to follow appropriate procedures and consider the right parameters during preliminary design stage, detailed design and development stages, and system test, evaluation validation and optimization stages. Doing so helps in ensuring that the aircraft designed meets the functional, technical, interoperability, usability, sustainability, reliability, safety, maintainability, affordability, producibility, supportability, serviceabilit y and disposability, requirements of the project. Completion of these processes requires effective communication, coordination and cooperation of all stakeholders involved in the project. The persons involved in the design process should also have relevant qualifications in terms of knowledge and skills. It is also very important for the design team to incorporate necessary human factors when designing the aircraft. References ATAG, 2017. Facts figures. [Online] Available at: https://www.atag.org/facts-and-figures.html [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Banu, S., 2012. Aviation and climate change: global sectored approach is the need of the hour. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 7(2), pp. 137-142. Beck, A., Hodzic, A., Soutis, C. Wilson, C., 2011. Influence of implementation of composite materials in civil aircraft industry on reduction of environmental pollution and greenhouse effect. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Volume 26, pp. 1-9. Blanchard, B. Fabrycky, W., 2010. Systems engineering and analysis. 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Capoccitti, S., Khare, A. Mildenberger, U., 2010. Aviation industry - mitigating climate change impacts through technology and policy. Journal of Technology Management Innovation, 5(2). Domun, Y., 2016. Aircraft design process overview. [Online] Available at: https://www.engineeringclicks.com/aircraft-design-process/ [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Estrada, F., Tol, R. Botzen, W., 2017. Global economic impacts of climate variability and change during the 20th century. PLOS ONE, 12(2). Gonzalez, C., 2017. NASA's Green Thumb for Green Aviation. [Online] Available at: https://www.machinedesign.com/defense/nasa-s-green-thumb-green-aviation [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Lee, J. Mo, J., 2011. Analysis of technological innovation and environmental performance improvement in aviation sector. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(9), pp. 3777-3795. Lei, G., Shuguang, Z., Peng, T. Yi, L., 2014. An integrated graphic-taxonomic-associative approach to analyze human factors in aviation accidents. Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 27(2), pp. 226-240. Luber, G. Prudent, N., 2009. Climate change and human health. Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association, Volume 120, pp. 113-117. MacDonald, S., 2015. Landing at Langley, Beoing's ecoDemonstrator 757 Displays Advances in Green Aviation. [Online] Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/langley/landing-at-langley-boeing-s-ecodemonstrator-757-displays-advances-in-green-aviation [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Mishra, A., Singh, V. Jain, S., 2010. Impact of global warming and climate chnage on society. Journal of Comparative Social Welfare, 26(2-3), pp. 239-260. Monroe Aerospace, 2017. The three stages of aircraft design. [Online] Available at: https://monroeaerospace.com/blog/the-three-stages-of-aircraft-design/ [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Paulson, Y., 2012. Cockpit design and human factors. [Online] Available at: https://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:cockpit-design-and-human-factors [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Rai, P. Rai, P., 2013. Environmental and socio-economic impacts of global climate change: An overview on mitigation approaches. Environmental Skeptics and Critics, 2(4), pp. 126-148. Schwinn, D., Kohlgruber, D., Scherer, J. Siemann, M., 2016. A parametric aircraft fuselage model for preliminary sizing and crashworthiness applications. CEAS Aeronautical Journal, 7(3), pp. 357-372. Sikorska, P., 2015. The need for legal regulation of global emissions from the aviation industry in the context of emerging aerospace vehicles. International Comparative Jurisprudence, 1(2), pp. 133-142. Taber, S., 2010. Climate change impacts of the aviation industry. [Online] Available at: https://ehsjournal.org/https:/ehsjournal.org/steven-taber/climate-change-impacts-of-the-aviation-industry-global-warming/2010/ [Accessed 2 October 2017]. Wang, F., Ge, Q., Wang, S. Chen, B., 2014. Certainty and uncertainty in understanding global warming. Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment, 12(1), pp. 6-12. Zheng, J., Qiao, H. Wang, S., 2017. The effect of carbon tax in aviation industry on the multilateral simulation game. Sustainability, 9(7), p. 1247.

Price Elasticity of Demand and Health Care free essay sample

Running Heading: Price Elasticity and Health Care Price Elasticity of Demand and Health Care Table of Contents I. II. Introduction III. Measure of Health Care Demand IV. Price Elasticity of Demand for HealthCare V. RAND Study VI. Health Care Trends in 2007 VII. Summary Introduction The Health Care System in the U. S continues to be a topic of debate as the cost for health care continue to grow. Many Americans are being forces to change the way they use the health care system as the costs rising faster than their income. More than 6 in 10 Americans with ealth insurance coverage indicate that the costs they are responsible for paying under their plan have increased in the past year. This paper examines the elasticity of demand for health care services. Measure of Health Care Demand The demand for health care is often measured by the quantity of services used such as the number of doctor visits, prescriptions filled or inpatient hospital stays. We will write a custom essay sample on Price Elasticity of Demand and Health Care or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The demand is also measured by the total costs of the services. The cost of health care for the consumer usually depends on the amount of premiums, deductible, and coinsurance or copayments that they are required to contribute. The amounts can vary and this can make it difficult to estimate the price elasticity of demand for health care services. In order to gage the effect of price changes, the researcher would need to determine the effective price that a consumer is willing to pay for an additional unit of health care services. Elasticity of Demand for Health Care The price elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in quantity demanded resulting from a 1 percent change in price. The elasticity of demand for a product or service will vary depending on the level of price and quantity at which it is evaluated. The elasticity of demand can vary depending on the different combinations of price and quantity demanded. As the norm, the price elasticity of demand will always be negative. This indicates that the consumer will demand less of the service or good as the price increase all other factors held constant. The demand for health care has been consistently found to be price inelastic due to the few close substitutes for medical services. The range of price elasticity it tends to be around – 0. 17, meaning that a 1 percent increase in the cost of health care will lead to a 0. 17 percent eduction in health care expenditures. Studies show that the demand levels decrease as the levels of cost sharing decrease. Some types of services such as pharmacy and preventative care benefits are tend to have higher price elasticities since there are other goods or services that can serve as substitutes. As a result, the consumer is able to move toward substitute services or goods as the price increa ses. The demand for health care is also considered to be income inelastic. The estimates of income elasticity of demand are in the range of 0 to 0. 2. This measure indicates that as income ncreases, the demand for health care services increase as well. The demand for health care can also be affected by the services being offered by a particular health plan. The variation of out-of- pocket expenses for services or premiums can impact the number of plan enrollees and the demand for health care services paid for by that plan. RAND Study Between 1974 and 1982, the government, funded a social insurance experiment referred to as the RAND Health Insurance Experiment (HIE). The experience was intended to answer some question pertaining to the demand for health care. Families in six sites were randomly placed into different insurance plans. The plans had different levels of cost-sharing, deductible amounts and out-of-pocket maximums. Although the HIE was conducted decades ago, the results of the studies are considered the â€Å"gold standard† for health demand elasticity estimates. The HIE studies compared health care use among individuals in different insurance plans. The studies indicated that use of health care services in the HIE was not affected by the out-of-pocket maximums. For coinsurance rates between 0 and 25 percent, the price elasticity of medical expenditures was found to be –0. 17. Consistent with the patterns seen in observational studies, the demand for health care was found to be somewhat more price sensitive as the coinsurance rate increased. In the HIE, coinsurance rates between 25 and 95 percent yielded elasticity estimates of –0. 22. The health care system has changed over the years since the experiment was conducted. There have been significant advances in medical technology and the pharmaceutical market. Healthcare Trends in 2007 Health care costs were estimated to 16. 2% of the U. S. gross domestic product (GDP) in 2007. The 2007 Health Confidence Survey (HCS) is conducted annually to get feedback from Americans regarding the health care system in the U. S. The survey was conducted within the United States between May 17 and June 10, 2007, through 20-minute telephone interviews with 1,000 individuals ages 21 and older. Random digit dialing was used to obtain a representative cross section of the U. S. population. The results show that rising health care costs are affecting the way that consumers use the health care system. Although some positive changes have been made, some consumers are delaying going to the doctor or not filling prescriptions due to the high cost. Some of the trends identified in the survey are: . 63 percent of Americans with health insurance coverage reported they experienced an increase in The costs they are responsible for paying under their plan in the past year. Of these, a large percentage says the increased costs have caused them to try to take better care of themselves (81 percent in 2007; 71 percent in 2005), talk to the doctor more regarding treatment o ptions and costs (66 percent in 2007; 57 percent in 2005), go to the doctor only for serious conditions or symptoms (64 percent in 2007; 54 percent in 2005), delay going to the doctor (50 percent in 2007; 40 percent in 2005), and not fill or skip doses of heir prescribed medications(28 percent in 2007; 21 percent in 2005). †¢ Those consumers that incurred cost increases are also likely to report that these increases have negatively affected their household finances. For some, the increase resulted in a decrease in contributions to retirement (30 percent) and other savings (52 percent) and difficulty paying for basic necessities (29 percent) and other bills (36 percent). †¢ Three-quarters of those with employment-based health coverage (76 percent) state they would prefer $7,500 in employment-based health benefits to an additional $7,500 in taxable income. Six in 10 rate the health care system as fair (29 percent) or poor (30 percent). Many consumers feel the health care sys tem needs a complete overhaul (24 percent) or requires major changes (47 percent). †¢ While half of Americans (51 percent) remain satisfied with health care quality, less than 2 in 10 are satisfied with the cost of health insurance (18 percent) or with costs not covered by insurance (16 percent). Many consumers believe they have no impact or no influence on the overall health care costs. Due to the rising health care costs, many American consumers are concerned about how the costs nd 15% view health care as a critical issue. While that is a small percentage, the dissatisfaction with the American health care system is widespread. Summary As the life expectancy has increased over the years, the demand of health care has increased. The cost of health care has also continued to increase, however, there will always be a demand for health care services. The demand for health care will be affected by economic variables such as plan design, income, and risk preferences. Overall, the pr ice elasticity of demand for heath care is relatively low. References The Kaiser Family Foundation (2007, September). Trend in Health Care Costs and Spending Retrieved November 30, 2007 from http://www. kff. org/insurance/upload/7692. pdf Employee Benefit Research Institute (2007, November) Notes: 2007 Health Confidence Survey: Rising HealthCare Costs Are Changing the Ways Americans Use the Health Care System. Retrieved December 3, 2007 from http://www. ebri. org. Ringel, Hosek, Vollaard, and Mahnovski. (2005) The Elasticity of Demand for Health Care: A Review of the Literature and Its Application to the Military Health System. Retrieved December 5, 2007 from http://www. rand. org/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1355. pdf.